Syntax and word choice Syntax: the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences

1. Write Complete Sentences

In informal conversation, we often speak in partial sentences, as in the response of Holly below:

Randall: Holly, why were you late for today's meeting?
Holly: Because of traffic on I-215

Although acceptable in colloquial speech, this reply becomes a sentence fragment in writing. Sentence fragments don’t belong in formal business writing.

Watch this video to review the three fundamental parts of a sentence:

This video identifies three sentence building blocks: subjects, verbs, and complements. Subjects are the noun actors in the sentence; they either do, are, or have something. Verbs express action, having, or being. Complements add meaning to the sentence by completing or giving more information about—modifying—the subject or the verb.

These elements collaborate to form meaningful sentence structure. Depending on the complexity of a sentence, it may contain multiple subjects, verbs, objects, and modifiers. A sentence may contain phrases and dependent clauses, but without an independent clause, no complete sentence exists. Click on the table below for examples of phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses.

Table 1 Phrases, dependent clauses, and independent clauses (click here)

A phrase (P) is a group of words that function as a single unit in a sentence. No subject-verb combination is present.	A dependent clause (DC) contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought. When expressed alone or with a phrase(s), a dependent clause is a fragment.	An independent clause (IC) contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Independent clauses are complete sentences.
Walking to the store	While I was walking to the store	I walked to the store.
By her side	Because he stood by her side	Because he stood by her side, she felt more confident.
While studying for the exam	While she studies for the exam	While she studies for the exam, she should take the practice quizzes.
Without hesitation	When she speaks without hesitation	When she speaks without hesitation, the audience is fully engaged.

Competent writers understand the difference between phrases and clauses and between independent and dependent clauses. This video clarifies the differences:

A clause contains both a subject and its verb. A dependent clause cannot stand alone, but an independent clause can stand alone because it is a complete sentence. A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject.

2. Mind your Modifiers

2.1 Adjectives and adverbs modify (describe) other words, phrases, and clauses.

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Adjectives and adverbs do not function interchangeably. Do not use an adverb where you need an adjective, and do not use an adjective where you need an adverb. Click on the table below for examples of adjectives and adverbs.

Table 2.1 Adjectives and adverbs (click here)

Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.	Which one	I like the gray house
	Which one	The book on the shelf belongs to Lara.
	What kind	Travis is a serious student.
	How many	Francine gathered three tea sets.
Adverbs modify verbs, adverbs, and adjectives.	When	Zelda arrived yesterday.
	When	Frank finished the project before the deadline.
	How	Taylor drives carefully.
	How	With style and grace, Jeff accepted the feedback.
	Where	Claire and Lily go everywhere together.
	Where	Shelly ran to the store.
	To what extent	This summer is unseasonably cool.
	To what extent	The movie is entertaining for all ages.

2.2 Avoid misplaced modifiers.

Whether they are words, phrases, or clauses, modifiers must be correctly placed in a sentence. Misplaced modifiers cause confusion because they are separated from the words, phrases, or clauses they describe or modify. Click on the table below for examples of how to correct misplaced modifiers.

Table 2.2 Misplaced words, phrases, and clauses (click here)

Modifier Type	Incorrect Example	Explanation	Corrected Example
Misplaced word	Tony fixed his clogged bathroom drain skillfully.	Skillfully does not modify bathroom drain.	Tony skillfully fixed his clogged bathroom drain.
Misplaced word	For dessert, Lee only eats cakes.	Only does not modify eats.	For dessert, Lee eats only cakes.
Misplaced phrase	Arriving home exhausted, my toothbrush and bed were all I wanted.	The toothbrush and bed did not arrive home exhausted.	Arriving home exhausted, I wanted only my toothbrush and bed.
Misplaced phrase	I heard about the hurricane at school.	At school does not modify hurricane.	At school, I heard about the hurricane.
Misplaced clause	I am a senior at BYU who is majoring in business.	BYU is not majoring in business.	I am a BYU senior who is majoring in business.
Misplaced clause	Dmitri suffered from the flu for three weeks, which nearly caused him to fail his finance class.	Three weeks did not nearly cause him to fail his finance class.	Suffering from the flu for nearly three weeks nearly caused Dmitri to fail his finance class.
Misplaced clause	Millennials saved thousands during the pandemic, which they used to purchase homes.	The pandemic was not used to purchase homes.	During the pandemic, millennials saved thousands, which helped that generation purchase homes.
Misplaced clause	ProQuest published the article, which provides innovative research to the public.	The article does not provide innovative research to the public; ProQuest does.	ProQuest, which provides innovative research to the public, published the article.

2.3 Avoid dangling modifiers.

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that is neither clearly nor logically related to the word(s) it modifies. Unlike misplaced modifiers, dangling modifiers cannot be corrected by simply moving them to a different place in the sentence. Click on the table below for examples of how to correct dangling modifier errors.

Table 2.3 Dangling words and phrases (click here)

Modifier Type	Definition	Explanation	Corrected Version
Dangling word	Decisively, the cheating students were expelled.	The word has nothing in the sentence to modify.	The dean decisively expelled the cheating students.
Dangling phrase	To be excused from class, a positive COVID-19 test is required.	The phrase has nothing in the sentence to modify.	To be excused from class, students are required to present a positive COVID-19 test.
Dangling phrase	After using the Chicago 17th citation format for several assignments, this method felt logical and familiar.	Nothing in the sentence indicates who is using the Chicago 17th citation format.	After using the Chicago 17th citation format for several assignments, Lety found this method logical and familiar.

2.4 Avoid squinting modifiers.

Squinting modifiers—words or phrases that could modify the words before or after them—create ambiguity and confusion. Click on the table below for examples of how to resolve squinting modifiers.

Table 2.4 Squinting modifiers (click here)

Type	Example	Reason It Squints	Corrected Version
Squinting word	Talking quickly annoys people.	Does talking quickly annoy people or does talking quickly annoy people?	Quickly talking annoys people.
Squinting phrase	I saw a bird in the tree with binoculars.	Who has the binoculars—you or the tree?	With my binoculars, I saw the bird in the tree.

2.5 Watch out for tricky exclusionary modifiers. The words only and just are especially tricky modifiers.

They are tricky because they can function as adjectives or adverbs. This duality can cause great confusion. To avoid misinterpretation, think carefully about where to place only and just; they belong directly next to the word or words they modify. Click on the table below for examples of how to translate only and just.

Watch this video to review those pesky introductory phrases:

Table 2.5 Exclusionary modifiers only and just (click here)

Example	Translation
She picked up the phone only when he was in the office.	She never picked up the phone unless he was in the office.
She only picked up the phone when he was in the office.	She didn’t do anything else when he was in the office: she didn’t say hello, dial a number, check her email, look out the window, and so on.
When he was in the office, her sole activity was to pick up the phone.	When he was in the office, the only activity she engaged in is picking up the phone.
Delina just went to the conference.	She left for the conference moments ago.
Delina went to just the conference.	She didn’t go to the preconference workshop or the post-conference tour. Her sole participation was in the conference itself.

None of the examples are incorrect, depending on the meaning the writer wants to convey. Therefore, carefully place only and just in a sentence. Errors typically occur when these words appear between the subject and the verb. Speakers get away with inserting only and just between the subject and the verb because vocal intonation clarifies meaning. In writing, however, place these words exactly where they belong: immediately before the word(s) you intend to modify.

For a general adverb-placement review, watch the following instructional video:

3. Correctly Use Pronouns

Pronouns stand in for nouns. To understand how pronouns are useful, consider the following two sentences:

LIFE WITHOUT PRONOUNS
Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, Inc., says that Elon Musk will drive electric cars for the rest of Elon Musk’s life.

Reading that sentence is confusing. Pronouns clarify and make the sentence easier to understand.

LIFE WITH PRONOUNS
Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, Inc., says that he will drive electric cars for the rest of his life.

Some situations require repeating pronouns because the reader can’t tell what the pronoun refers to. Rule #5 below (avoid ambiguous pronoun references) discusses these situations.

3.1 Learn how pronouns function.

Using the correct pronoun starts with identifying the point of view, case, number, and gender.

Point of view refers to whether the pronoun is in first, second, or third person.

First-person point of view indicates an I/We/Us perspective. Second-person point of view indicates a You perspective. Third-person point of view indicates a He/She/It/They/Them perspective.

Pronoun case refers to how the pronoun is being used in the sentence.

Subjects do the action in a sentence. Objects either receive the action in the sentence or come after a preposition. Possessives indicate ownership. If they are used before a noun, they become adjectives. Reflexives or Intensives reflect on the subject or emphasize or intensify nouns.

Pronouns can be singular or plural.

Some pronouns are assigned a gender.

Some pronouns indicate masculine or feminine gender; some are gender-neutral. Some pronouns are masculine. Others are feminine. Others are not assigned gender. Other languages have gender assigned to nouns, not just pronouns. English, however, assigns gender to only certain pronouns, like she, her, herself, he, him, and himself.

Table 3.1 provides a list of pronouns by point of view, number and gender, and case. Table 3.1-1 provides examples of each. Notice the gender-neutral y’all, which is inclusive. Click on the tables to view these examples.

Table 3.1.1 Pronoun point of view, number, gender, and case (click here)

Point of View	Number and Gender	Case
Point of View	Number and Gender	Subject	Object	Possessive	Reflexive and Intensive
First	Singular	I	Me	Mine	Myself
First	Plural	We	Us	Ours	Ourselves
Second	Singular	You	You	Yours	Yourself
Second	Plural	You	You	Yours	Yourselves
Third	Masculine singular	He	Him	His	Himself
	Feminine singular	She	Her	Hers	Herself
	Neutral or inanimate singular	It	It	Its	Itself
	Gender-neutral singular	They	Them	Theirs	Themself
	Plural	They	Them	Theirs	Themselves

Table 3.1.2 Using pronouns in examples (click here)

Subject	Object	Possessive	Reflexive/Intensive
Devon and I are going to the barbecue.	Please come to the company barbecue with Devon and me.	The car you saw in the parking lot is mine.	I plan to study for the exam myself.
We plan to join the social impact club.	My team leader is going with us to the barbecue.	Ours is the office with the blue marquis.	We don’t need an escort; we ourselves can arrive safely.
You should take Stat 121 to prepare for data analytics.	After Jamie reads the book, she’ll give it to you.	The responsibility for being ethical is yours.	Y’all must learn to manage yourselves. Take the final exam yourself.
Meet Juan and Juanita; he and she are this semester’s TAs.	Linc and Sienna are my cousins; I’ll make a place for him and her in my car.	Jack and Annie bought groceries; his cost more than hers.	He himself prepared the entire meal, while she herself decorated the dining room for the party.
I have a cat; it loves to sleep in the sun.	When you care for my cat, please feed it every three hours.	The cat will clean its paws after it finishes eating.	Bleach itself is enough to kill the virus.
My professor has a degree they earned at Boston University.	My professor earned their PhD in finance.	The laptop on the desk is theirs; they forgot to take it with them when they left.	Alex introduced themself to the group and expressed their excitement about joining the team.
Sean loves the mountains because they remind him of home.	When Sean goes to the mountains, he feels calmed by them.	Holly and Dan bought a new home on Fort Street; theirs has black siding.	Angela and Samantha will drive themselves to the airport.

Compound Pronoun Tip

If you get confused about which pronoun to use when it comes as part of a compound, use this helpful tip:

In your mind, omit one of the pair:

“My team leader is going with Devon and me/Devon and I to the company barbecue.”

Removing Devon and simplifies the process so writers easily choose the correct pronoun.

3.2 Correctly emphasize pronouns.

To emphasize a subject or object, add the corresponding pronoun in the correct case. The table below shows a few examples. If you can make your point without using the emphatic pronoun, leave it out to remain concise. Click on the table below to view examples of emphatic pronouns

Table 3.2 Emphatic pronouns (click here)

Incorrect	Correct
Us managers will travel early to the conference.	We managers will travel early to the conference.
The conference will teach we managers to collaborate.	The conference will teach us managers to collaborate.

3.3 Correctly use relative pronouns.

When used to introduce relative adjective clauses, the relative pronouns—that, which, who, and whoever—introduce relative adjective clauses. Called relative pronouns because they relate the clause with the noun they modify, relative pronouns answer the questions, Which one? and What kind? Click on the table below for examples of how to use relative adjective clauses.

Table 3.3.1 Use relative pronouns to start relative adjective clauses (click here)

Which one?	What kind?
The book that is on the desk belongs to Dr. Andersen.	The company produces cars that are fuel efficient and environmentally friendly.
Harvey’s test score is the straw that broke the camel’s back.	The hotel offers rooms that are spacious and comfortable.
The team that won the championship celebrated their victory with a parade.	Deanne is an artist who creates captivating, vibrant landscape paintings.

How do you know whether to use that, which, or who? When referring to objects or groups—including families or teams—use that or which. Using that indicates a clause essential or restrictive to the meaning of the sentence. Using which indicates a clause nonessential or nonrestrictive to the meaning of the sentence. Notice that commas set off nonessential clauses (more to come in the punctuation section). When referring to people, use who. Click on the table below for examples of this.

Table 3.3.2 Relative pronouns indicate restriction (click here)

Essential—use that or who	Nonessential—use which or who
The family that plays together stays together.	Haagen Dazs strawberry ice cream, which is Katrina’s favorite, is currently unavailable at Harmon’s.
The librarian who oversees all business disciplines taught our information literacy workshop.	Olivia’s professor, who is also Taylor’s mom, holds office hours on Tuesday afternoons.
Travelers who want reimbursement should submit their receipts.	The soccer team, which won the championship last year, is now preparing for the upcoming tournament.

For more information on pronoun-related errors, visit The Purdue OWL. A Towson University
website also clearly explains pronouns.

4. Agree with Antecedents

4.1 Pronouns must agree with their antecedents.

Pronouns must agree with their antecedent—the noun they are replacing. The pronoun must match the antecedent in number, singular or plural, and in gender, male or female. Click on the table below for examples.

Table 4.1 Singular and plural antecedents and their associated pronouns (click here)

Singular Antecedents	Associated Pronouns	Examples
Boy, man (masculine)	I, me, my, mine, he, him, his, you, your, yours	Vika’s teammate Adnan wants to take his lunch break early today.
Girl, woman (feminine)	I, me, my, mine, she, her, hers, you, your, yours	Holly said I can use her computer if mine is not working.
Object, place, company, organization (gender neutral)	It, its	BYU is a desirable university because of its low price tag and its high moral standards.
Plural Antecedents	Associated Pronouns	Examples
Boys, men, girls, women	We, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs	Vika’s teammates Adnan and Furat want to take their lunch break early today.
Objects, places, companies, organizations	They, them, their, theirs	The Jazz are playing their first home game tonight at Vivint Arena.

Singular Pronoun Tip

The following link clearly explains how to use singular pronouns with a singular company: Business Writing Blog.

4.2 Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, amount, or thing.

Click on the tables below for examples of indefinite pronouns by number—singular or plural. Always-singular indefinite pronouns always pair with singular pronouns. Always-plural pronouns pair with plural pronouns.

Table 4.2.1 Indefinite pronouns that are always singular (click here)

Antecedents				Examples
Anyone	Either*	Everything	Nothing	Nobody wants to admit he is wrong.
Anybody	Every	Many a	Someone	Every water-damaged book must have its cover replaced.
Anything	Everyone	Neither*	Somebody	Each mosaic has its unique pattern.
Each	Everybody	Nobody	Something	Either of the options has its advantages.

Table 4.2.2 Indefinite pronouns that are always plural antecedents (click here)

Pronoun	Both	Few	Several	Many
Example	Both parents love their children.	Few astronauts achieve their goals.	Several students failed their tests.	The storm separated many plants from their pots.

Table 4.2.3 Indefinite pronouns that are singular or plural antecedents (click here)

Pronoun	All	Most	Any	None	More	Some
Example plural	All the children are sleeping in their beds.	Most of the challenges will overcome themselves.	Any of the foods can be swapped for their substitutes.	None of the workers can find their overtime contracts.	More applicants submitted their resumes for the position.	Some students have already completed their projects.
Example singular	All the information is in its proper place.	Most of my work speaks for itself.	Any obstacle has its resulting reward.	None of the oil was stored in its original barrel.	More time is needed for the cake to reach its ideal consistency.	Some of the water spilled from its container.

4.3 Is a team—or another group of people like a family, city council, or board of directors—singular or plural?

In business, a team is composed of a number of individuals. However, because the team is an entity distinct from its individual members, use a singular pronoun and verb when referring to the team as a whole. Click on the table below for examples of how teams and families take singular pronouns:

Table 4.3 Teams and families take singular pronouns (click here)

Incorrect Example	Correct Example
The sales team achieved their target.	The sales team achieved its target.
The city council plans to hold their meetings on Tuesdays next year.	The city council plans to hold its meetings on Tuesdays next year.
The members of the team achieved its individual targets.	The members of the team achieved their individual targets.

4.4 Correctly use demonstrative pronouns.

Pointing to other nouns in the sentence, the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those indicate number and proximity. This and that are singular. These and those are plural. This and these refer to close items. That and those refer to items that are far away. If the physical distance is ambiguous, consider context. Assess physical proximity, emphasis, and intended meaning to choose the most suitable demonstrative pronoun. Click on the table below for examples of how to use demonstrative pronouns

Table 4.4 Correctly use demonstrative pronouns

Incorrect Example	Correct Example
This car in the Marriott Center parking lot across campus is illegally parked.	That car in the Marriott Center parking lot across campus is illegally parked.
These houses across the gully face west.	Those houses across the gully face west.
I applied for graduate school, studied abroad, and volunteered at a local homeless shelter. This lasted my entire summer.	I applied for graduate school, studied abroad, and volunteered at a local homeless shelter. These activities lasted my entire summer.
I'm donating those books on the shelf next to me. I plan to sell these on the shelf in Mary’s room.	I'm donating these books on the shelf next to me. I plan to sell those on the shelf in Mary’s room.
Let’s try this restaurant across town.	Let’s try that restaurant across town.

5. Avoid Ambiguous Pronoun References

Pronouns must not only agree with their antecedents in gender and number but also refer to only one antecedent. For more information, watch this video that contains advice on keeping your pronoun references straight.

Take note—antecedents must be nouns or pronouns. Verb phrases, adjectives, and adverbs are not allowed to be antecedents.

The following video explains pronoun references:

Click on the table below for examples of how to use clear pronoun references.

Table 5 Use clear pronoun references (click here)

Ambiguous Reference	Clear Pronoun Reference	Explanation
John’s manager said he wasn’t allowed to go.	John’s manager said John was not allowed to go.	Clarify so the reader knows who is not allowed to go.
My team leader is afraid of the new audit director; she constantly avoids her.	Heidi, my team leader, is afraid of the new audit director. In fact, Heidi constantly avoids her.	Clarify so the reader knows who is avoiding whom.
Dyson and Laney rarely debug their code. This could create future system-wide problems.	Dyson and Laney rarely debug their code. This negligence could create future system-wide problems.	Clarify so the reader knows that this refers to negligence. The verb debug may not be an antecedent for a pronoun. Note that adding the noun after this transforms this into a possessive adjective.

6. Create Parallel Expressions

Parallelism means using the same word patterns—the same syntax—for similar parts of a sentence. When these similar elements aren’t parallel, they sound awkward and out of place.

Writers most often violate the parallelism principle in three situations:

When stating items in a list or series
When expressing vertical lists
When connecting items with parallel connectives

Click on the table below for examples of how to create parallel expressions.

Table 6 Create parallel expressions (click here)

Situation	Not Parallel	Parallel
Items in a series. A series consists of three or more items or actions. Each item in the series must have the same structure and start with the same part of speech.	Our exhibition booth will feature product giveaways, instructional videos, and we’ll be especially pleased to raffle off a Hawaiian vacation.	Our exhibition booth will feature product giveaways, instructional videos, and a Hawaiian-vacation raffle.
Vertical list. Whether bulleted or enumerated, all items in a bulleted list must start with the same part of speech and be the same functional part (e.g., a question or a statement)	Projects will be evaluated on the following criteria: Is the client satisfied? Are the consultants fully engaged? Existence of a follow-on project.	Projects will be evaluated on the following criteria: Is the client satisfied? Are the consultants fully engaged? Did the project generate follow-on work?
Parallel connectors. To be parallel, the same part of speech must follow each of the connecting pairs—neither/nor, either/or, not only/but also, both/and, and rather/or.	The movie was neither interesting nor did we like the graphics.	The movie was neither interesting nor visually appealing.
	Walmart is going to either lay off workers or it will cut hours.	Walmart is going to either lay off workers or cut their hours.
	The new consultant is not only a genius but also loves to cook.	The new consultant is not only a genius but also a gourmet cook.
	Google is both innovative and it turns a profit every quarter.	Google is both innovative and profitable.
	Would you rather take two weeks off or would you move to a different team?	Would you rather take two weeks off or move to a different team?

Learn more about parallelism in the video below:

To solidify your understanding of how to use parallel connectives, watch this video:

To learn more about parallel connectives, click the link below.

The OWL on Parallel Structure

7. Choose the Right Word

Have you ever been confused about whether to use affect or effect? If so, you are in good company. Many words are commonly confused. Take, for example, the words every day and everyday. Every day means daily. Everyday means commonplace.

INCORRECT: For my new exercise regimen, I do yoga everyday.

CORRECT: For the company picnic, I wore my everyday jeans.

Table 7 List of words commonly misused in business writing (click here)

Do you know the difference?
ensure/insure	sale/sell	adverse/averse	appraise/apprise
its/it's	compliment/complement	accept/except	can/may
further/farther	number/amount	aid/aide	choose/chose
principle/principal	affect/effect	lead/led	cite/site/sight
counselor/councilor	advice/advise	allot/a lot	everyday/every day
then/than	whether/if	fewer/less	many/much

If you don't understand the difference between any of the pairs this table, review this alphabetized list of common word-use errors: Easily Confused Words.

In Conclusion

Awareness is the first step toward mastery. This section covered seven types of sentence structure and word-choice errors. If you struggle with any of these errors, keep studying, practicing, and getting feedback. Your writing and speaking will continue to improve until these seven fundamentals become second nature to you.

Consider putting your writing through an AI grammar checker. Do you notice whether it finds your grammar errors?

Creative Commons license

Additional Resources

MCOM Grammar Videos

Fogarty, Mignon. "What Is a Subordinate Clause?" Grammar Girl Quick and Dirty Tips, February 29, 2016.

Mills, Bonnie. "Pronouns and Antecedents." Grammar Girl Quick and Dirty Tips, November 30, 2018.

For further information on the importance of grammar in business writing, review the following articles:

Wiens, Kyle. “I Won’t Hire People Who Use Poor Grammar. Here’s Why.” HBR Blog Network, July 20, 2012.
Kyle Wiens takes a stand on sloppy grammar and will not hire people who do not pass a grammar test. He believes that grammar is relevant for all companies because it establishes credibility.

Hoover, Brad. “Good Grammar Should Be Everyone’s Business.” HBR Blog Network, March 4, 2013.
In response to Wien’s article, Brad Hoover, CEO of Grammarly, reviewed 100 LinkedIn profiles of native English speakers with similar job experience for correct use of grammar. He found that those with fewer grammar errors achieved higher positions, and moved up the corporate ladder more quickly.

Shellenbarger, Sue. “This Embarrasses You and I: Grammar Gaffes Invade the Office in an Age of Informal Email, Texting, and Twitter.” The Wall Street Journal, June 20, 2012.
Shellenbarger discusses business professionals’ grammar inequity. Because grammar rules are often unclear, they can be sources of office debate and argument (for example, using the Oxford comma, or ending a sentence with a preposition).

For more in-depth information, review the following books:

HBR Guide to Better Business Writing by Bryan Garner

It Was the Best of Sentences, It Was the Worst of Sentences by June Casagrande

Words Fail Me by Patricia O'Conner

Eats, Shoots, and Leaves by Lynne Truss

The Only Grammar Book You’ll Ever Need: A One-Stop Source for Every Writing Assignment by Susan Thurman